Nutshell
一、前言
今天開始學習互聯網。
學習的維度是互聯網和商業的關系。
潤總把這系列內容總結為：互聯網世界五大基本規律。
談論當今的商業世界，互聯網幾乎是避之不開的問題。
經過多年的飛速發展，互聯網已然成為這個世界的基礎設施。
當前、未來，一定要基于互聯網進行商業思考。
我認為，在此之前，很有必要補一下互聯網的歷史，于是有了這篇互聯網的前世今生。
參考資料：
1、https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/jul/15/how-the-internet-was-invented-1976-arpa-kahn-cerf?CMP=share_btn_link
2、https://www.webpagefx.com/blog/web-design/the-history-of-the-internet-in-a-nutshell/
二、互聯網的前世今生
“科技發展的過程就像建造大教堂一樣。在幾百年的歷程中，不斷有新人加入，每個人都會在現在的基礎上添加一塊磚，每個人都會說：“我建了一座大教堂。”到了下個月，又會有新磚加在之前的磚瓦上。然后來了一位歷史學家，問：“大教堂是誰建的？”彼得在這里加了幾塊石頭，保羅又多加了幾塊石頭。如果不謙虛謹慎的話，你就會自欺欺人地認為自己完成的是最重要的部分。但事實是，每一項貢獻都必須以前人的積累為基礎。事物與事物之間都是環環相扣的?！?/p>
——最先提出“分組交換數據網絡”概念的蘭德智庫工程師保羅·巴蘭
先驅們
1、互聯網的前世今生
ARPANET阿帕網
NSFNET
- 當今的互聯網始于1969年阿帕網（Advanced Research Projects Agency Network，ARPANET）。這個基于“包交換理論”而創立的去中心化的分布式計算網絡，是由美國國防部高級研究計劃署(Advanced Research Projects Agency，ARPA)旗下信息處理技術局(Information Processing Techniques Office，IPTO)1969年底資助開發的世界上第一個計算機遠距離封包交換的網絡。設置西海岸的四個節點：UCLA、斯坦福研究院、加州大學圣巴巴拉分校、猶他大學聯網構成。
- 在那個遙遠的時代，這個粗糙的網絡奠定了現代互聯網的基本架構：TELNET、FTP、網絡控制協議NCP以及電子郵件、網絡符號@等就此誕生。
- 比起當年阿波羅計劃的轟動效應，阿帕網的偉大意義被漠視和低估。
Vox網站2014年用一組可視化圖片展示互聯網的誕生和變遷。
1.互聯網前身：阿帕網
1969年，美國國防部的高級研究計劃局(ARPA)建設了一個軍用網，即“阿帕網”(ARPANET)。這就是互聯網的前身。
2. 1970年：阿帕網擴張
截止1970年末，阿帕網已發展到13個節點，包括東海岸的學校，如哈佛和麻省理工。
3. 1973年：阿帕網國際化發展
1973年，阿帕網已擴張為40個節點，并開始國際化發展，美國的節點能能通過衛星通信與相距較遠的夏威夷州、英國的倫敦和北歐的挪威連接。
4. 1982年：阿帕網社區在成長
隨著阿帕網進入第二個十年，它仍主要局限在美國，到1982年，該網絡只有大約100個節點，但這不足以支撐一個充滿活力的在線社區。
5.1984年：阿帕網成為互聯網
這張地圖顯示了阿帕網和CSNET的節點(標記為“Phonenet”)。CSNET是由美國國家科學基金會資助所建立的用以提供全國范圍內鏈接的計算機科學網。
6.NSFNET：第一個互聯網主干網
20世紀80年代，美國國家科學網絡資助美國各地建立了數個超級計算中心，并在1986年創建了一個直接連接這些中心的主干網絡，即NSFNET。此圖顯示了1992年的NSFNET，當時，有6000個網絡連接到NSFNET，其中三分之一位于海外。
7. 互聯網成為全球性網絡
1993年，互聯網雖然仍由美國主導，但開始成為一個真正的全球性網絡。該圖顯示了一個完全交互式的超級電子論壇——新聞組(Usenet)上的信息流。
8.互聯網主干網的私有化
1994年，克林頓政府推進了互聯網主干網的私有化。政府資助的NSFNET退役，商業公司開始介入。上面四張圖說明了世紀之交的市場演變。當時出現的四家最大的私人長途網絡供應商為UUNET、AT&T、Sprint和Level 3。
9.互聯網征服世界(2000-2012)
這張地圖顯示了從2000年到2012年全球網絡用戶的發展情況?；ヂ摼W先在富裕國家興起，然后進入到中等收入國家，最后滲透到貧窮國家。如今，全球互聯網用戶超過25億，而每年還在產生數以億計的新用戶。
10.2012年全球有線寬帶普及率
人們有兩種登錄網絡的基本方法：一是通過有線寬帶，二是通過無線寬帶。由圖可見，有線網絡在世界各地仍然備受歡迎。
11.2012全球移動寬帶普及率
此圖顯示了全球各地的移動寬帶普及率(該圖與上張圖中同顏色的數據不能直接比較)。在發達國家，人們早期通過固定寬帶接入網絡，之后才擁有移動互聯網設備。但一些發展中國家正跳過固定寬帶網絡的建設階段，而這樣的方式經濟有效，因為一個手機塔可以為數以百計的用戶提供服務。
12.2014年全球寬帶速度
這張圖揭示了全球各地寬帶速度，其中最快的地方是以香港為首的深綠區域，平均速度為每秒近8千萬比特。
13.面臨斷網風險的國家
這張地圖顯示了各國所面對的斷網風險程度。一些國家因與外界的鏈接不足而容易斷網。而另一些國家，如美國，有幾十條途徑連接到外部世界，使其幾乎無法采取斷網的審查手段。
14. 2013年全球互聯網自由狀況
這張地圖根據互聯網自由狀況，對全球各地進行了分類。所分類型包括自由、一定程度的自由和不自由。有一些國家和地區未被評估。
三、互聯網的歷史
While the complete history of the Internet could easily fill a few books, this article should familiarize you with key milestones and events related to the growth and evolution of the Internet between 1969 to 2009.
1969: Arpanet
Arpanet was the first real network to run on packet switching technology (new at the time). On the October 29, 1969, computers at Stanford and UCLA connected for the first time. In effect, they were the first hosts on what would one day become the Internet.
The first message sent across the network was supposed to be “Login”, but reportedly, the link between the two colleges crashed on the letter “g”.
1969: Unix
Unix
Another major milestone during the 60’s was the inception of Unix: the operating system whose design heavily influenced that of Linux and FreeBSD (the operating systems most popular in today’s web servers/web hosting services).
1970: Arpanet network
An Arpanet network was established between Harvard, MIT, and BBN (the company that created the “interface message processor” computers used to connect to the network) in 1970.
1971: Email
Email
Email was first developed in 1971 by Ray Tomlinson, who also made the decision to use the “@” symbol to separate the user name from the computer name (which later on became the domain name).
1971: Project Gutenberg and eBooks
Project Gutenberg and eBooks
One of the most impressive developments of 1971 was the start of Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg, for those unfamiliar with the site, is a global effort to make books and documents in the public domain available electronically–for free–in a variety of eBook and electronic formats.
It began when Michael Hart gained access to a large block of computing time and came to the realization that the future of computers wasn’t in computing itself, but in the storage, retrieval and searching of information that, at the time, was only contained in libraries. He manually typed (no OCR at the time) the “Declaration of Independence” and launched Project Gutenberg to make information contained in books widely available in electronic form. In effect, this was the birth of the eBook.
1972: CYCLADES
France began its own Arpanet-like project in 1972, called CYCLADES. While Cyclades was eventually shut down, it didpioneer a key idea: the host computer should be responsible for data transmission rather than the network itself.
1973: The first trans-Atlantic connection and the popularity of emailing
Arpanet made its first trans-Atlantic connection in 1973, with the University College of London. During the same year,email accounted for 75% of all Arpanet network activity.
1974: The beginning of TCP/IP
The beginning of TCP/IP
1974 was a breakthrough year. A proposal was published to link Arpa-like networks together into a so-called “inter-network”, which would have no central control and would work around a transmission control protocol (which eventually became TCP/IP).
1975: The email client
With the popularity of emailing, the first modern email program was developed by John Vittal, a programmer at the University of Southern California in 1975. The biggest technological advance this program (called MSG) made was the addition of “Reply” and “Forward” functionality.
1977: The PC modem
The PC modem
1977 was a big year for the development of the Internet as we know it today. It’s the year the first PC modem, developed byDennis Hayes and Dale Heatherington, was introduced and initially sold to computer hobbyists.
1978: The Bulletin Board System (BBS)
The first bulletin board system (BBS) was developed during a blizzard in Chicago in 1978.
1978: Spam is born
1978 is also the year that brought the first unsolicited commercial email message (later known as spam), sent out to 600 California Arpanet users by Gary Thuerk.
1979: MUD – The earliest form of multiplayer games
MUD - The earliest form of multiplayer games
The precursor to World of Warcraft and Second Life was developed in 1979, and was called MUD (short for MultiUser Dungeon). MUDs were entirely text-based virtual worlds, combining elements of role-playing games, interactive, fiction, and online chat.
1979: Usenet
1979 also ushered into the scene: Usenet, created by two graduate students. Usenet was an internet-based discussion system, allowing people from around the globe to converse about the same topics by posting public messages categorized by newsgroups.
1980: ENQUIRE software
The European Organization for Nuclear Research (better known as CERN) launched ENQUIRE (written by Tim Berners-Lee), a hypertext program that allowed scientists at the particle physics lab to keep track of people, software, and projects using hypertext (hyperlinks).
1982: The first emoticon
The first emoticon
While many people credit Kevin MacKenzie with the invention of the emoticon in 1979, it was Scott Fahlman in 1982 who proposed using**
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1983: Arpanet computers switch over to TCP/IP
January 1, 1983 was the deadline for Arpanet computers to switch over to the TCP/IP protocols developed by Vinton Cerf. A few hundred computers were affected by the switch. The name server was also developed in ’83.
1984: Domain Name System (DNS)
Domain Name System (DNS)
The domain name system was created in 1984 along with the first Domain Name Servers (DNS). The domain name system was important in that it made addresses on the Internet more human-friendly compared to its numerical IP address counterparts. DNS servers allowed Internet users to type in an easy-to-remember domain name and then converted it to the IP address automatically.
1985: Virtual communities
1985 brought the development of The WELL (short for Whole Earth ‘Lectronic Link), one of the oldest virtual communities still in operation. It was developed by Stewart Brand and Larry Brilliant in February of ’85. It started out as a community of the readers and writers of the Whole Earth Review and was an open but “remarkably literate and uninhibited intellectual gathering”. Wired Magazine once called The Well “The most influential online community in the world.”
1986: Protocol wars
The so-called Protocol wars began in 1986. European countries at that time were pursuing the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), while the United States was using the Internet/Arpanet protocol, which eventually won out.
1987: The Internet grows
By 1987, there were nearly 30,000 hosts on the Internet. The original Arpanet protocol had been limited to 1,000 hosts, but the adoption of the TCP/IP standard made larger numbers of hosts possible.
1988: IRC – Internet Relay Chat
IRC - Internet Relay Chat
Also in 1988, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) was first deployed, paving the way for real-time chat and the instant messaging programs we use today.
1988: First major malicious internet-based attack
One of the first major Internet worms was released in 1988. Referred to as “The Morris Worm”, it was written by Robert Tappan Morris and caused major interruptions across large parts of the Internet.
1989: AOL is launched
AOL is launched
When Apple pulled out of the AppleLink program in 1989, the project was renamed and America Online was born. AOL, still in existence today, later on made the Internet popular amongst the average internet users.
1989: The proposal for the World Wide Web
The Proposal for the World Wide Web
1989 also brought about the proposal for the World Wide Web, written by Tim Berners-Lee. It was originally published in the March issue of MacWorld, and then redistributed in May 1990. It was written to persuade CERN that a global hypertext system was in CERN’s best interest. It was originally called “Mesh”; the term “World Wide Web” was coined while Berners-Lee was writing the code in 1990.
1990: First commercial dial-up ISP
1990 also brought about the first commercial dial-up Internet provider, The World. The same year, Arpanet ceased to exist.
1990: World Wide Web protocols finished
The code for the World Wide Web was written by Tim Berners-Lee, based on his proposal from the year before, along with the standards for HTML, HTTP, and URLs.
1991: First web page created
First web page created
1991 brought some major innovations to the world of the Internet. The first web page was created and, much like the first email explained what email was, its purpose was to explain what the World Wide Web was.
1991: First content-based search protocol
Also in the same year, the first search protocol that examined file contents instead of just file names was launched, calledGopher.
1991: MP3 becomes a standard
Also, the MP3 file format was accepted as a standard in 1991. MP3 files, being highly compressed, later become a popular file format to share songs and entire albums via the internet.
1991: The first webcam
The first webcam
One of the more interesting developments of this era, though, was the first webcam. It was deployed at a Cambridge University computer lab, and its sole purpose was to monitor a particular coffee maker so that lab users could avoid wasted trips to an empty coffee pot.
1993: Mosaic – first graphical web browser for the general public
Mosaic - first graphical web browser for the general public
The first widely downloaded Internet browser, Mosaic, was released in 1993. While Mosaic wasn’t the first web browser, it is considered the first browser to make the Internet easily accessible to non-techies.
1993: Governments join in on the fun
In 1993, both the White House and the United Nations came online, marking the beginning of the .gov and .org domain names.
1994: Netscape Navigator
Netscape Navigator
Mosaic’s first big competitor, Netscape Navigator, was released the year following (1994).
1995: Commercialization of the internet
1995 is often considered the first year the web became commercialized. While there were commercial enterprises online prior to ’95, there were a few key developments that happened that year. First, SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) encryption was developed by Netscape, making it safer to conduct financial transactions (like credit card payments) online.
In addition, two major online businesses got their start the same year. The first sale on “Echo Bay” was made that year. Echo Bay later became eBay. Amazon.com also started in 1995, though it didn’t turn a profit for six years, until 2001.
1995: Geocities, the Vatican goes online, and JavaScript
Other major developments that year included the launch of Geocities (which officially closed down on October 26, 2009).
The Vatican also went online for the first time.
Java and JavaScript (originally called LiveScript by its creator, Brendan Eich, and deployed as part of the Netscape Navigator browser – see comments for explanation) was first introduced to the public in 1995. ActiveX was launched by Microsoft the following year.
1996: First web-based (webmail) service
First web-based (webmail) service
In 1996, HoTMaiL (the capitalized letters are an homage to HTML), the first webmail service, was launched.
1997: The term “weblog” is coined
While the first blogs had been around for a few years in one form or another, 1997 was the first year the term “weblog” was used.
1998: First new story to be broken online instead of traditional media
In 1998, the first major news story to be broken online was the Bill Clinton/Monica Lewinsky scandal (also referred to as “Monicagate” among other nicknames), which was posted on The Drudge Reportafter Newsweek killed the story.
1998: Google!
Google!
Google went live in 1998, revolutionizing the way in which people find information online.
1998: Internet-based file-sharing gets its roots
Internet-based file-sharing starts to become popular
In 1998 as well, Napster launched, opening up the gates to mainstream file-sharing of audio files over the internet.
1999: SETI@home project
1999 is the year when one of the more interesting projects ever brought online: the SETI@home project, launched. The project has created the equivalent of a giant supercomputer by harnessing the computing power of more than 3 million computers worldwide, using their processors whenever the screensaver comes on, indicating that the computer is idle. The program analyzes radio telescope data to look for signs of extraterrestrial intelligence.
2000: The bubble bursts
2000 was the year of the dotcom collapse, resulting in huge losses for legions of investors. Hundreds of companies closed, some of which had never turned a profit for their investors. The NASDAQ, which listed a large number of tech companies affected by the bubble, peaked at over 5,000, then lost 10% of its value in a single day, and finally hit bottom in October of 2002.
2001: Wikipedia is launched
Wikipedia is launched
With the dotcom collapse still going strong, Wikipedia launched in 2001, one of the websites that paved the way forcollective web content generation/social media.
2003: VoIP goes mainstream
In 2003: Skype is released to the public, giving a user-friendly interface to Voice over IP calling.
2003: MySpace becomes the most popular social network
Also in 2003, MySpace opens up its doors. It later grew to be the most popular social network at one time (though it has since been overtaken by Facebook).
2003: CAN-SPAM Act puts a lid on unsolicited emails
Another major advance in 2003 was the signing of the Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003, better known as the CAN-SPAM Act.
2004: Web 2.0
Though coined in 1999 by Darcy DiNucci, the term “Web 2.0”, referring to websites and Rich Internet Applications (RIA) that are highly interactive and user-driven became popular around 2004. During the first Web 2.0 conference, John Batelle and Tim O’Reilly described the concept of “the Web as a Platform“: software applications built to take advantage of internet connectivity, moving away from the desktop (which has downsides such as operating system dependency and lack of interoperability).
2004: Social Media and Digg
The term “social media”, believed to be first used by Chris Sharpley, was coined in the same year that “Web 2.0” became a mainstream concept. Social media–sites and web applications that allow its users to create and share content and to connect with one another–started around this period. People loved the idea of being able to travel through their friends and families pictures and adventures, despite not being physically present.
Social Media and Digg
Digg, a social news site, launched on November of 2004, paving the way for sites such as Reddit, Mixx, and Yahoo! Buzz. Digg revolutionized traditional means of generating and finding web content, democratically promoting news and web links that are reviewed and voted on by a community.
2004: “The” Facebook open to college students
"The" Facebook open to college students
Facebook launched in 2004, though at the time it was only open to college students and was called “The Facebook”; later on, “The” was dropped from the name, though the URL http://www.thefacebook.com still works.
2005: YouTube – streaming video for the masses
YouTube launched in 2005, bringing free online video hosting and sharing to the masses.
2006: Twitter gets twittering
Twitter launched in 2006. It was originally going to be called twittr (inspired by Flickr); the first Twitter message was “just setting up my twttr”.
2007: Major move to place TV shows online
Major move to place TV shows online
Hulu was first launched in 2007, a joint venture between ABC, NBC, and Fox to make popular TV shows available to watch online.
2007: The iPhone and the Mobile Web
The Mobile Web
The biggest innovation of 2007 was almost certainly the iPhone, which was almost wholly responsible for renewed interest in mobile web applications and design.
2008: “Internet Election”
The first “Internet election” took place in 2008 with the U.S. Presidential election. It was the first year that national candidates took full advantage of all the Internet had to offer. Hillary Clinton jumped on board early with YouTube campaign videos. Virtually every candidate had a Facebook page or a Twitter feed, or both.
Ron Paul
Ron Paul set a new fundraising record by raising $4.3 million in a single day through online donations, and then beat his own record only weeks later by raising $4.4 million in a single day.
The 2008 elections placed the Internet squarely at the forefront of politics and campaigning, a trend that is unlikely to change any time in the near future.
2009: ICANN policy changes
2009 brought about one of the biggest changes to come to the Internet in a long time when the U.S. relaxed its control over ICANN, the official naming body of the Internet (they’re the organization in charge of registering domain names).
The Future?
Where is the future of the Internet headed? We can only assume that the Internet will continue to grow. From basic developments to things like PPC advertising, the Internet has only become more impressive over time. Share your opinions in the comments section.
Sources and Further Reading
A People’s History of the Internet: from Arpanet in 1969 to Today: A timeline of the Internet from guardian.co.uk.
History of the Internet: An early timeline of the Internet, from precursors in the 1800s up through 1997.
A Brief History of the Web: A series of videos from Microsoft to celebrate the launch of Internet Explorer 8.
The History of the Internet – Tim Berners-Lee: A brief history of major developments associated with the Internet from About.com.
Hobbes’ Internet Timeline – the definitive ARPAnet & Internet History: A very thorough timeline of the Internet, starting in 1957 and going up through 2004, with tons of statistics and source material included.
Internet Timeline: A basic timeline of Internet history from FactMonster.com.
